During two days of intensive airborne measurements, oil and gas operations in Colorado's Front Range leaked nearly three times as much methane, a greenhouse gas, as predicted based on inventory estimates, and seven times as much benzene, a regulated air toxic. Emissions of other chemicals that contribute to summertime ozone pollution were about twice as high as estimates, according to the new paper, accepted for publication in the American Geophysical Union's Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres.

"These discrepancies are substantial," said lead author Gabrielle Petron, an atmospheric scientist with the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, a joint institute of the University of Colorado Boulder and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Emission estimates or 'inventories' are the primary tool that policy makers and regulators use to evaluate air quality and climate impacts of various sources, including oil and gas sources. If they're off, it's important to know."

The new paper provides independent confirmation of findings from research performed from 2008-2010, also by Petron and her colleagues, on the magnitude of air pollutant emissions from oil and gas activities in northeastern Colorado. In the earlier study, the team used a mobile laboratory -- sophisticated chemical detection instruments packed into a car -- and an instrumented NOAA tall tower near Erie, Colorado, to measure atmospheric concentrations of several chemicals downwind of various sources, including oil and gas equipment, landfills and animal feedlots.

Back then, the scientists determined that methane emissions from oil and gas activities in the region were likely about twice as high as estimates from state and federal agencies, and benzene emissions were several times higher. In 2008, northeastern Colorado's Weld County had about 14,000 operating oil and gas wells, all located in a geological formation called the Denver-Julesburg Basin.

In May 2012, when measurements for the new analysis were collected, there were about 24,000 active oil and gas wells in Weld County. The new work relied on a different technique, too, called mass-balance. In 2012, Petron and her colleagues contracted with a small aircraft to measure the concentrations of methane and other chemicals in the air downwind and upwind of the Denver-Julesburg Basin. On the ground, NOAA wind profilers near Platteville and Greeley tracked around-the-clock wind speed and wind direction.

On two days in May 2012, conditions were ideal for mass-balance work. Petron and her team calculated that 26 metric tons of methane were emitted hourly in a region centered on Weld County. To estimate the fraction from oil and gas activities, the authors subtracted inventory estimates of methane emissions from other sources, including animal feedlots, landfills and wastewater treatment plants. Petron and her team found that during those two days, oil and gas operations in the Denver-Julesburg Basin emitted about 19 metric tons of methane per hour, 75 percent of the total methane emissions. That's about three times as large as an hourly average estimate for oil and gas operations based on Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (itself based on industry-reported emissions).

Petron and her colleagues combined information from the mass-balance technique and detailed chemical analysis of air samples in the laboratory to come up with emissions estimates for volatile organic compounds, a class of chemicals that contributes to ozone pollution; and benzene, an air toxic.

Benzene emissions from oil and gas activities reported in the paper are significantly higher than state estimates: about 380 pounds (173 kilograms) per hour, compared with a state estimate of about 50 pounds (25 kilograms) per hour. Car and truck tailpipes are a known source of the toxic chemical; the new results suggest that oil and gas operations may also be a significant source.

Oil-and-gas-related emissions for a subset of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can contribute to ground-level ozone pollution, were about 25 metric tons per hour, compared to the state inventory, which amounts to 13.1 tons. Ozone at high levels can harm people's lungs and damage crops and other plants; the northern Front Range of Colorado has been out of compliance with federal health-based 8-hour ozone standards since 2007, according to the EPA. Another CIRES- and NOAA-led paper published last year showed that oil and natural gas activities were responsible for about half of the contributions of VOCs to ozone formation in northeastern Colorado.

This summer, dozens of atmospheric scientists from NASA, the National Center for Atmospheric Research, NOAA, CIRES and other will gather in the Front Range, to participate in an intensive study of the region's atmosphere, said NCAR scientist Gabriele Pfister. With research aircraft, balloon-borne measurements, mobile laboratories and other ground-based equipment, the scientists plan to further characterize the emissions of many possible sources, including motor vehicles, power plants, industrial activities, agriculture, wildfires and transported pollution.

"This summer's field experiment will provide us the information we need to understand all the key processes that contribute to air pollution in the Front Range," Pfister said.

Airborne infection control in healthcare settings

Exposure of human beings to different airborne pathogens has resulted in the emergence of epidemics of respiratory infections (). Most of the microorganisms released from infectious patients can disperse in a wide geographical area by air currents and finally can be inhaled by susceptible individuals who have had no direct contact with the primary source (). This airborne transmission becomes even more prevalent in healthcare settings because of overburdened hospitals and the presence of immunosuppressed patients ().

World Health Organization, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, and International Union of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease have released guidelines regarding the control of airborne infection in both developed and developing nations (4). The suggested measures include a three-pronged approach, namely administrative control, environmental control, and personal respiratory protection measures (4, 5).

The rationale for implementing administrative control measures is to minimize potential opportunities of exposure of susceptible individuals to infectious patients. Administrative control measures include education and training of staff (i.e., principles and practices of infection control/clear roles and responsibilities of different cadres of healthcare staff); outpatient department measures (i.e., screening of patients for respiratory complaints/information – education – communication for promoting cough etiquette by the patients/segregation of respiratory symptomatic in a separate well – ventilated waiting area/fast – tracking of respiratory symptomatic/seating arrangement of doctor and patients); and inpatient department measures (i.e., minimizing hospitalization of patients/reduction of nosocomial infections/educating patients and attendants about cough hygiene/routine segregation of patients to separate infectious wards or separate areas in same ward/maintain spacing by ward decompression/advocating safe sputum collection) (4, 5).

Environmental control measures are recommended mainly for reduction in concentration of infectious particles, which are usually present in the healthcare settings. It comprises indoor patient segregation and bed spacing; ensuring effective ventilation at all times and in all seasons; and giving special attention to high-risk areas, such as anti-retroviral therapy centers, outpatient and inpatient departments, bronchoscopy procedure rooms, and multidrug resistant tuberculosis wards. Strategies like natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation, air changes per hour (a measure of how many times the air within a defined space is replaced per hour), and upper room ultraviolet light have been proposed to ensure adequate ventilation (4, ).

By promoting personal respiratory protection among the patients and healthcare staff, there is a reduction in risk to other staff and patients. Finding of a study has revealed that multi-sectoral approach should be advocated instead of an individual approach for optimal control of droplets present in the aerosol expelled while coughing (5, ).

To conclude, airborne transmission of infectious disease is a major public health concern. Need of the hour is to assess the true contribution of airborne transmission to infection rates so that hospital administrators can implement appropriate control measures to keep respiratory infections under check.

Airborne Supplement

Active Ingredients in Airborne:

Contains 17 herbs and nutrients including: vitamins A, C and E; riboflavin; magnesium; zinc; selenium; manganese; sodium; potassium; amino acids; an herbal extract blend that echinacea, maltodextrin and forsythia. Also contains other ingredients for flavoring.

Directions:

Airborne supplement is intended to help you ward off colds and the flu by boosting your immune system when you are exposed to large groups of people. However, these claims have not been assessed nor confirmed in scientific studies.

Take Airborne tablets two or three days before entering a crowded place (such as an airplane, movie theater or school).

Dissolve 1 tablet in a glass of water and drink.

Repeat as necessary every 3 to 4 hours, not to exceed 3 doses in one day.

Also available as an on-the-go formula.

Drop one packet into a bottle of water and wait until it dissolves to drink.

Where to Buy:

Airborne supplement is available at many drug and retail stores throughout the United States and at www.airbornehealth.com.

Costs:

The suggested retail price for a tube (10 tablets) is $6.99.

Side Effects:

The manufacturer lists no side effects, but if you have a sensitivity or allergy to any of the ingredients, you should not take Airborne.

Flavors Available:

Original zesty orange
Lemon-lime (tablet and on-the-go formula)
Pink grapefruit
Grape (Airborne Jr.)
Hot apple cider (nighttime formula)

Using Airborne as a Dietary Supplement:

This product can be used as a dietary supplement, but a multivitamin should not be taken when taking Airborne. Taking both Airborne and a multivitamin daily will result in an overdose of certain vitamins and this could cause serious side effects.

Kids and Airborne:

Airborne Jr. is available for kids ages 4 to 10. It is not recommended for children under 4, unless instructed by a doctor.

More Information:

Does Airborne Work?

All the claims made by the manufacturer have not been assessed nor confirmed in scientific studies. In general, vitamins and other food supplements have typically failed to show any affect on conditions such as colds and flu.

Is Airborne Safe for Pregnant or Nursing Mothers?
Women who are nursing or pregnant should not take this product unless instructed to do so by their health care provider.

Is Airborne Regulated by the FDA?
No.
Airborne's claims have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease

Measure degree of disease and early recovery

Wednesday, 16 July 2014

Airborne measurements confirm leaks from oil and gas operations